Isoniazid-associated pellagra during mass scale-up of tuberculosis preventive therapy: a case-control study.

BACKGROUND: Pellagra is caused by niacin (vitamin B3) deficiency and patients with pellagra present with a characteristic rash. Isoniazid disrupts intracellular niacin synthesis and might induce niacin deficiency. In 2017, Malawi scaled up continuous isoniazid preventive treatment (IPT) for tuberculosis prevention among people living with HIV. In addition, an under-diversified diet based on subsistence maize, as is commonly the case in Malawi, is a risk factor for pellagra. We aimed to investigate whether large-scale isoniazid exposure in Malawi contributed to the cumulative risk for pellagra in a nutritionally vulnerable population. METHODS: We did a matched case-control study to evaluate the association between daily, continuous isoniazid exposure and pellagra. We matched sequentially enrolled patients with pellagra each with four control participants by sex and age from referral dermatology centres in three IPT scale-up districts in Malawi (Lilongwe, Blantyre, and Zomba) to evaluate isoniazid as a risk for pellagra using multivariable conditional logistic regression. We established a community clinic referral system surrounding the dermatology clinic in each district to enhance case-finding and included all patients with pellagra, regardless of referral status. The primary outcome was dermatologist-diagnosed pellagra. We calculated the interval between isoniazid initiation and rash onset and assessed 30-day clinical outcomes after multi-B vitamin treatment containing 300 mg nicotinamide daily. FINDINGS: Between Feb 5 and Aug 9, 2019, we enrolled 197 patients with pellagra and 781 matched controls. Isoniazid exposure was associated with an increased risk of pellagra (adjusted odds ratio 42·6 [95% CI 13·3-136·6]). Significant covariates included HIV infection, referral status, food insecurity, underweight, excess alcohol consumption, and, among women, lactation. The median time from isoniazid initiation to rash onset was shorter during the season of food scarcity (5 months [IQR 3-7]) compared with the harvest season (9 months [8-11]; hazard ratio 7·2 [95% CI 3·2-16·2], log-rank p<0·0001). Those with isoniazid-associated pellagra who discontinued isoniazid and adhered to multi-B vitamin treatment showed 30-day clinical improvement. INTERPRETATION: Continuous IPT scale-up and the annual period of food scarcity both increased the risk of pellagra in Malawi. Use of shorter rifamycin-based regimens for tuberculosis prevention and food fortification in populations with undernutrition might reduce this risk. Niacin-containing multi-B vitamin co-administration with isoniazid as pellagra prevention is worth exploring further. FUNDING: This study was supported by the President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief through the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention under project 7173.

Impacts of COVID-19-related service disruptions on TB incidence and deaths in Indonesia, Kyrgyzstan, Malawi, Mozambique, and Peru: Implications for national TB responses.

Initial global-level estimates reported in June 2020 by the World Health Organization suggested that levels of disruption to TB service delivery could be as high as 25%-50% and result in an additional 6·3 million cases of tuberculosis (TB) and an additional 1·4 million TB-related deaths attributable to COVID-19 between 2020 and 2025. Quarterly epidemiological estimates and programmatic TB data capturing disruption levels to each TB service were collected by National TB Programmes in Indonesia, Kyrgyzstan, Malawi, Mozambique, and Peru. Data from 2019, for a pre-COVID-19 baseline, and throughout 2020, together with the NTP's COVID-19 response plans, were used within Optima TB models to project TB incidence and deaths over five years because of COVID-19-related disruptions, and the extent to which those impacts may be mitigated through proposed catch-up strategies in each country. Countries reported disruptions of up to 64% to demand-driven TB diagnosis. However, TB service availability disruptions were shorter and less severe, with TB treatment experiencing levels of disruption of up to 21%. We predicted that under the worse-case scenario cumulative new latent TB infections, new active TB infections, and TB-related deaths could increase by up to 23%, 11%, and 20%, respectively, by 2024. However, three of the five countries were on track to mitigate these increases to 3% or less by maintaining TB services in 2021 and 2022 and by implementing proposed catch-up strategies. Indonesia was already experiencing the worse-case scenario, which could lead to 270,000 additional active TB infections and 36,000 additional TB-related deaths by the end of 2024. The COVID-19 pandemic is projected to negatively affect progress towards 2035 End TB targets, especially in countries already off-track. Findings highlight both successful TB service delivery adaptions in 2020 and the need to proactively maintain TB service availability despite potential future waves of more transmissible COVID-19 variants.

Protocol for a Case-Control Study to Investigate the Association of Pellagra With Isoniazid Exposure During Tuberculosis Preventive Treatment Scale-Up in Malawi.

Background: Pellagra is caused by niacin (vitamin B3) deficiency and manifested by a distinctive dermatitis. Isoniazid is critical for treating tuberculosis globally and is a component of most regimens to prevent tuberculosis. Isoniazid may contribute to pellagra by disrupting intracellular niacin synthesis. In 2017, Malawian clinicians recognized a high incidence of pellagra-like rashes after scale-up of isoniazid preventive treatment (IPT) to people living with HIV (PLHIV). This increase in pellagra incidence among PLHIV coincided with a seasonal period of sustained food insecurity in the region, which obscured epidemiological interpretations. Although isoniazid has been implicated as a secondary cause of pellagra for decades, no hypothesis-driven epidemiological study has assessed this relationship in a population exposed to isoniazid. We developed this case-control protocol to assess the association between large-scale isoniazid distribution and pellagra in Malawi. Methods: We measure the relative odds of having pellagra among isoniazid-exposed people compared to those without exposure while controlling for other pellagra risk factors. Secondary aims include measuring time from isoniazid initiation to onset of dermatitis, comparing niacin metabolites 1-methylnicotinamide (1-MN), and l-methyl-2-pyridone-5-carboxamide (2-PYR) in urine as a proxy for total body niacin status among subpopulations, and describing clinical outcomes after 30-days multi-B vitamin (containing 300 mg nicotinamide daily) therapy and isoniazid cessation (if exposed). We aim to enroll 197 participants with pellagra and 788 age- and sex-matched controls (1:4 ratio) presenting at three dermatology clinics. Four randomly selected community clinics within 3-25 km of designated dermatology clinics will refer persons with pellagra-like symptoms to one of the study enrollment sites for diagnosis. Trained study dermatologists will conduct a detailed exposure questionnaire and perform anthropometric measurements. A subset of enrollees will provide a casual urine specimen for niacin metabolites quantification and/or point-of-care isoniazid detection to confirm whether participants recently ingested isoniazid. We will use conditional logistic regression, matching age and sex, to estimate odds ratios for the primary study aim. Discussion: The results of this study will inform the programmatic scale-up of isoniazid-containing regimens to prevent tuberculosis.

Evaluation of 6-Month Versus Continuous Isoniazid Preventive Therapy for Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Adults Living With HIV/AIDS in Malawi.

BACKGROUND: To assist the Malawi Ministry of Health to evaluate 2 competing strategies for scale-up of isoniazid preventive therapy (IPT) among HIV-positive adults receiving antiretroviral therapy. SETTING: Malawi. METHODS: We used a multidistrict, compartmental model of the Malawi tuberculosis (TB)/HIV epidemic to compare the anticipated health impacts of 6-month versus continuous IPT programs over a 12-year horizon while respecting a US$10.8 million constraint on drug costs in the first 3 years. RESULTS: The 6-month IPT program could be implemented nationwide, whereas the continuous IPT alternative could be introduced in 14 (of the 27) districts. By the end of year 12, the continuous IPT strategy was predicted to avert more TB cases than the 6-month alternative, although not statistically significant (2368 additional cases averted; 95% projection interval [PI], -1459 to 5023). The 6-month strategy required fewer person-years of IPT to avert a case of TB or death than the continuous strategy. For both programs, the mean reductions in TB incidence among people living with HIV by year 12 were expected to be <10%, and the cumulative numbers of IPT-related hepatotoxicity to exceed the number of all-cause deaths averted in the first 3 years. CONCLUSIONS: With the given budgetary constraint, the nationwide implementation of 6-month IPT would be more efficient and yield comparable health benefits than implementing a continuous IPT program in fewer districts. The anticipated health effects associated with both IPT strategies suggested that a combination of different TB intervention strategies would likely be required to yield a greater impact on TB control in settings such as Malawi, where antiretroviral therapycoverage is relatively high.

The prevalence of pulmonary tuberculosis among miners from the Karonga, Rumphi, Kasungu and Lilongwe Districts of Malawi in 2019.

Introduction: Miners in sub-Saharan Africa have a greater risk of tuberculosis (TB) than any other working population in the world. In spite of the presence of large and vulnerable population of miners in Malawi, no previous study has aimed to assess the burden of TB among these miners. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) and health-seeking behaviour (HSB) in a population of miners in Malawi, and a range of associated factors. Our goal was to develop a method to identify missing cases of TB. Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional study in the Karonga, Rumphi, Kasungu and Lilongwe districts of Malawi in 2019. We calculated frequencies, proportions, odds ratios (ORs) and their 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs), and used the chi-square test in STATA version15.1 to investigate the burden and magnitude of PTB in the mining sector. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression models were also fitted for PTB and HSB. Results: Of the 2400 miners approached, we were able to interview 2013 (84%). Of these, 1435 (71%) were males, 1438 (71%) had known HIV status and 272 (14%) had PTB. Multivariate analysis showed that the miners performing informal mining were 50% more likely to develop PTB compared with those in formal mining (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]=1.50, 95% CI: 1.10-2.05, P=0.01). A total of 459 (23% of 2013) miners had presumptive TB. Of these, 120 (26%) sought health care; 80% sought health care at health facilities. Multivariate analysis also showed that miners who experienced night sweats were less likely to seek health care compared with those without night sweats (AOR=0.52, 95% CI: 0.30-0.90, P=0.02). Conclusion: The prevalence of PTB was higher among miners than in the general population. Consequently, targeted TB screening programmes for miners may represent a suitable strategy to adopt if we are to end TB by 2030. Poor health-seeking behaviours among miners is worrisome and further qualitative research is necessary to understand the barriers to accessing health care in these settings.

Use of indicators of standards of care to improve tuberculosis program management in Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Systematic monitoring of health programs and on-site mentoring of health workers are essential for the success of health care. This operations research was designed to measure the effectiveness of a new mentorship and supervisory tool for supervisors. METHODS: In 2011 the Help Ethiopia Address the Low TB Performance (HEAL TB) Project used WHO or national TB indicators as standards of care (SOC) for baseline assessment, progress monitoring, gap identification, assessment of health workers' capacity-building needs, and data quality assurance. Cut-off points were selected for poor, average, and best performers for each indicator. In this analysis we present results from 10 zones (of 28) in which 1,165 health facilities were supported from 2011 through 2015. Other zones were excluded from the analysis because they entered the project later. The data were collected by trained mentors/supervisors and entered into Microsoft Excel. We used rates and ratios to show the impact of the intervention. RESULTS: The improvement in the median composite score of 13 selected major indicators (out of 22) over four years was significant (p = 0.000). The proportion of health facilities with 100% data accuracy for all forms of TB was 55.1% at baseline and reached 96.5%. In terms of program performance, the TB cure rate improved from 71% to 91.1%, while the treatment success rate increased from 88% to 95.3%. In the laboratory area, where there was previously no external quality assurance (EQA) for sputum microscopy, 1,165 health facilities now have quarterly EQA, and 96.1% of the facilities achieved a ≥ 95% concordance rate in blinded rechecking. CONCLUSION: The SOC approach for supervision was effective for measuring progress, enhancing quality of services, identifying capacity needs, and serving as a mentorship and an operational research tool.

Vitamin D deficiency among smear positive pulmonary tuberculosis patients and their tuberculosis negative household contacts in Northwest Ethiopia: a case-control study.

BACKGROUND: Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin that increases the immunity against tuberculosis (TB), decreases the re-activation of latent TB and reduces the severity of active TB disease. Epidemiological studies on the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency, and its association with TB showed inconsistent results in different countries. This study was aimed to determine the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency and its association with TB in Northwest Ethiopia. METHODS: A case-control study was conducted among smear positive pulmonary tuberculosis patients and their household contacts without symptoms suggestive of TB. Study participants were recruited at 11 TB diagnostic health facilities in North and South Gondar zones of Amhara region between May 2013 and April 2015. The spot-morning-spot sputum samples and 5 ml blood sample were collected prior to commencing TB treatment for the diagnosis of TB and serum vitamin D assay, respectively. The diagnosis of TB was performed using smear microscopy and GeneXpert. Serum vitamin D level was analyzed using VIDAS 25 OH Vitamin D Total testing kits (Biomerieux, Marcy I'Etoile, France) on mini VIDAS automated immunoassay platform. Vitamin D status was interpreted as deficient (<20 ng/ml), insufficient (20-29 ng/ml), sufficient (30-100 ng/ml) and potential toxicity (>100 ng/ml). RESULTS: Of the total study participants, 134 (46.2%) were vitamin D deficient, and only 56 (19.3%) had sufficient vitamin D level. A total of 59 (61.5%) TB patients and 75 (38.7%) non TB controls were vitamin D deficient. Results of multivariate logistic regression analyses showed a significantly higher vitamin D deficiency among tuberculosis cases (p < 0.001), females (p = 0.002), and urban residents (p < 0.001) than their respective comparison groups. Moreover, age groups of 35-44 (p = 0.001), 45-54 (p = 0.003) and ≥55 (p = 0.001) years had significantly higher vitamin D deficiency compared with age group <15 years. CONCLUSIONS: Vitamin D deficiency is highly prevalent among TB patients and non TB controls in Ethiopia where there is year round abundant sunshine. Study participants with tuberculosis, females, older age groups, and urban residents had significantly higher prevalence of vitamin D deficiency. These findings warrant further studies to investigate the role of vitamin D supplementation in the prevention and treatment of tuberculosis in high TB burden countries like Ethiopia.

The additional yield of GeneXpert MTB/RIF test in the diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis among household contacts of smear positive TB cases.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to compare the diagnostic yield of GeneXpert MTB/RIF with Ziehl-Neelson (ZN) sputum smear microscopy among index TB cases and their household contacts. METHODS: A cross sectional study was conducted among sputum smear positive index TB cases and their household contacts in Northern Ethiopia. RESULTS: Of 353 contacts screened, 41 (11%) were found to have presumptive TB. GeneXpert test done among 39 presumptive TB cases diagnosed 14 (35.9%) cases of TB (one being rifampicin resistant), whereas the number of TB cases diagnosed by microscopy was only 5 (12.8%): a 64.3% increased positivity rate by GeneXpert versus ZN microscopy. The number needed to screen and number needed to test to diagnose a single case of TB was significantly lower with the use of GeneXpert than ZN microscopy. Of 119 index TB cases, GeneXpert test revealed that 106 (89.1%) and 5 (4.2%) were positive for rifampicin sensitive and rifampicin resistant TB, respectively. CONCLUSION: GeneXpert test led to increased TB case detection among household contacts in addition to its advantage in the diagnosis of Rifampicin resistance among contacts and index TB cases. There should be a consideration in using GeneXpert MTB/RIF as a point of care TB testing tool among high risk groups.

Decentralization of Acid Fast Bacilli (AFB) External Quality Assurance Using Blind Rechecking for Sputum Smear Microscopy in Ethiopia.

INTRODUCTION: Ethiopia achieved a rapid expansion of TB microscopic centers for acid fast bacilli (AFB). However, external quality assurance (EQA) services were, until recently, limited to few regional and sub-regional laboratories. In this paper, we describe the decentralization experience and the result of EQA using random blinded rechecking. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The routine EQA quarterly report was compiled and analyzed. A positive result by the microscopic center while the EQA center reported negative result is categorized as false positive (FP). A negative result by the microscopic center while the EQA center reported positive is considered false negative (FN). The reading of EQA centers was considered a gold standard to compute the sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive (PPV) and negative predictive values (NPV) of the readings of microscopic centers. RESULTS: We decentralized sputum smear AFB EQA from 4 Regional Laboratories (RRLs) to 82 EQA centers and enrolled 956 health facilities in EQA schemes. Enrollment of HFs in EQA was gradual because it required training and mentoring laboratory professionals, institutionalizing internal QA measures, equipping all HFs to perform diagnosis, and establishing more EQA centers. From 2012 to 2014 (Phase I), the FP rate declined from 0.6% to 0.2% and FN fell from as high as 7.6% to 1.6% in supported health facilities (HFs). In HFs that joined in Phase II, FN rates ranged from 5.6 to 7.3%. The proportion of HFs without errors has increased from 77.9% to 90.5% in Phase I HFs and from 82.9% to 86.9% in Phase II HFs. Overall sensitivity and specificity were 95.0% and 99.7%, respectively. PPV and NPV were 93.3% and 99.7%, respectively. CONCLUSION: Decentralizing blinded rechecking of sputum smear microscopy is feasible in low-income settings. While a comprehensive laboratory improvement strategy enhanced the quality of microscopy, laboratory professionals' capacity in slide reading and smear quality requires continued support.

Contributing towards the betterment of translational epilepsy research in Africa: needs, challenges, resources, and opportunities.

Epilepsy affects approximately 50 million people worldwide. Among them, at least 40 million people are currently living in the developing world, where resources and standards of care are suboptimal. Around 90 % of people with epilepsy in resource-poor countries do not currently receive appropriate treatments, at a time when two thirds of these patients could have achieved good control of their epileptic seizures had they had access to appropriate therapies. Scarcity of epilepsy specialists, poor availability or access to diagnostic facilities and treatments, poor community knowledge about epilepsy-related issues, stigma, and other societal and cultural barriers are only some of the issues contributing to this deficiency. These issues in epilepsy treatment have been well recognized, and ongoing concerted efforts to address them have been undertaken by both local authorities and international organizations. In many cases, patients resort to the use of traditional local and alternative medicines (herbs, religious practices, etc.) that are closer to indigenous cosmovision, are more holistic, and are more culture-friendly, preserving an optimum subtlety of Afrocentric character shading. Compared with imported Western medicines, patients find these approaches to be more relevant to their ways of thinking, their ways of being, and their belief systems, more accessible, and more acceptable methods of dealing with health and disease states. The impressive local wealth in these natural resources has established them as a preferred source of healing in these regions, but has also fueled interest in exploring their therapeutic potential in the very few existing local research centers. In this review, we discuss the known issues related to the epilepsy treatment gap in resource-poor regions, focusing in particular on African countries, introduce the role and issues related to the use and validation of alternative medical therapies in epilepsy, and comment on the importance and repercussions of initiatives to validate such therapies, primarily for local practices, but also for possible wider international applications.

A 43-year systematic review and meta-analysis: case-fatality and risk of death among adults with tuberculous meningitis in Africa.

Tuberculous meningitis (TBM) is a preventable and curable common health problem among African adults. Poor nutrition, poverty, household crowding, drug resistant tuberculosis (TB) strains, AIDS, and malfunctioning TB control programs are important risk factors. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of published literature reporting case-fatalities of TBM among adults in African countries from 1970 till date. A PubMed search identified relevant papers. Employed terms include 'adult tuberculous meningitis' AND 'tuberculosis Africa'. PRISMA review guidelines were applied. Adult TBM case-fatalities, odds ratio (OR), relative risk (RR), forest-plot meta-analysis for weighted OR and RR, funnel plots, L'Abbé plots, meta-regressed bubble plots, and inter-study homogeneity were computed. Among 15 studies included, adult TBM occurred in up to 28 % of all meningitis forms with case-fatality of 60 % (inverse-variance weighted 54 %). Fixed-effect meta-analysis revealed weighted OR and RR of adult TBM fatalities to be 4.37 (95 % CI 3.92, 4.88) and 2.53 (95 % CI 2.38, 2.69), respectively. Inter-study homogeneity was reliable, regional representativeness was adequate allowing generalizability, and funnel-plots behaved symmetrically with insignificant inconsistency. All cases were initiated with anti-TB medication, while some had 'breakthrough' TBM. In Africa, adult TBM has a significant public health importance with a very high fatality which has remained stagnant for the past half-century. This reflects ongoing low quality of medical care at facilities where lengthy referrals end up. Community-based studies can reveal higher unaccounted morbidity, accrued disability, and larger mortality. Improving access points for early TB management at community-level, developing health infra-structure for comprehensive case management at facility-level, and poverty reduction can help combat this multi-faceted problem--whose reduction can in return help fight poverty.

Determinants of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in patients who underwent first-line treatment in Addis Ababa: a case control study.

BACKGROUND: Worldwide, there were 650,000 multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) cases in 2010, and in 2008 the World Health Organization estimated that 150,000 deaths occurred annually due to MDR-TB. Ethiopia is 15th among the 27 MDR-TB high-burden countries. This study identifies factors associated with the occurrence of MDR-TB in patients who underwent first-line TB treatment in Addis Ababa City. METHODS: A case control study was conducted at St. Peter Hospital and five health centers in Addis Ababa from 1 November 2011 to February 30, 2012. Cases were MDR-TB patients who were confirmed with culture and drug-susceptibility testing and were in treatment at St. Peter Hospital during the study period. Controls were patients who were on first-line anti-TB treatment and were registered as cured or having completed treatment in the period 9 April 2009- 28 February 2010, in five health centers of Addis Ababa City. Accordingly, 134 cases and an equal number of controls were included in this study. A structured interview questionnaire was used to assess factors that could potentially be associated with the occurrence of MDR-TB. RESULTS: Factors that were significantly associated with MDR-TB: drug side effects during first-line treatment (adjusted odds ratio (AOR): 4.5, 95% CI; 1.9 - 10.5); treatment not directly observed by a health worker (AOR = 11.7, 95% CI; 4-34.3); interruption of treatment of at least a day (AOR = 13.1, 95% CI 3.0-56.6); duration of treatment between 2 and 7 months (AOR = 14.8, 95% CI 2.3-96.4); and retreatment with the Category II regimen (P = 0.000). In the current study, HIV infection was not significantly associated with the occurrence of MDR-TB. CONCLUSIONS: Patients who were not in strict DOTS programs and did not adhere to first-line TB treatment and patients who experienced side effects during first-line treatment and Category II retreatment were at significantly increased risk of developing MDR-TB. The DOTS program should, therefore, be strengthened to increase patient adherence. Drug-susceptibility testing is also highly recommended for all Category I treatment regimen failures before those patients begin the Category II regimen.

Predictors of mortality among TB-HIV Co-infected patients being treated for tuberculosis in Northwest Ethiopia: a retrospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Tuberculosis (TB) is the leading cause of mortality in high HIV-prevalence populations. HIV is driving the TB epidemic in many countries, especially those in sub-Saharan Africa. The aim of this study was to assess predictors of mortality among TB-HIV co-infected patients being treated for TB in Northwest Ethiopia. METHODS: An institution-based retrospective cohort study was conducted between April, 2009 and January, 2012. Based on TB, antiretroviral therapy (ART), and pre-ART registration records, TB-HIV co-infected patients were categorized into "On ART" and "Non-ART" cohorts. A Chi-square test and a T-test were used to compare categorical and continuous variables between the two groups, respectively. A Kaplan-Meier test was used to estimate the probability of death after TB diagnosis. A log-rank test was used to compare overall mortality between the two groups. A Cox proportional hazard model was used to determine factors associated with death after TB diagnosis. RESULTS: A total of 422 TB-HIV co-infected patients (i.e., 272 On ART and 150 Non-ART patients) were included for a median of 197 days. The inter-quartile range (IQR) for On ART patients was 140 to 221 days and the IQR for Non-ART patients was 65.5 to 209.5 days. In the Non-ART cohort, more TB-HIV co-infected patients died during TB treatment: 44 (29.3%) Non-ART patients died, as compared to 49 (18%) On ART patients died. Independent predictors of mortality during TB treatment included: receiving ART (Adjusted Hazard Ratio (AHR) =0.35 [0.19-0.64]); not having initiated cotrimoxazole prophylactic therapy (CPT) (AHR = 3.03 [1.58-5.79]); being ambulatory (AHR = 2.10 [1.22-3.62]); CD4 counts category being 0-75 cells/micro liter, 75-150 cells/micro liter, or 150-250 cells/micro liter (AHR = 4.83 [1.98-11.77], 3.57 [1.48-8.61], and 3.07 [1.33-7.07], respectively); and treatment in a hospital (AHR = 2.64 [1.51-4.62]). CONCLUSIONS: Despite the availability of free ART from health institutions in Northwest Ethiopia, mortality was high among TB-HIV co-infected patients, and strongly associated with the absence of ART during TB treatment. In addition cotrimoxazol prophylactic therapy remained important factor in reduction of mortality during TB treatment. The study also noted importance of early ART even at higher CD4 counts.

Cancer in Ethiopia.

Ethiopia has a population of more than 84 million people and is expected to become the ninth most populous country in the world by 2050. The growing population coupled with lifestyle changes will mean an increasing burden of cancer. However, oncology services are wholly inadequate--no cancer registry exists, and only one cancer centre, with a handful of doctors and nurses, struggles to serve the entire country.

Factors associated with home delivery in Bahirdar, Ethiopia: a case control study.

BACKGROUND: In Ethiopia although pregnant mothers increasingly attend antenatal clinics, utilization of skilled delivery service remains very low. The individual or health system factors that affect women's preferences for delivery places are not well known. METHOD: A case control study was conducted in July 2010 to assess factors associated with utilization of institutional delivery service. A total of 324 mothers who recently delivered and visited either postnatal care or sought immunization services were included. Cases (n = 108) were mothers who gave birth at home and controls (n = 216) were those who delivered at health facility. Pre-tested and standardized questionnaires were used to collect relevant data by trained data collectors. Logistic regression model was used to control for confounding. RESULT: The likelihood of delivering at home was greater among mothers with inadequate knowledge of pregnancy related services (AOR = 62, 95% CI: 3, 128.4), those who started attending ANC after 24 weeks of gestation (AOR 8.7, 95% CI: 2.2, 33.3), mothers having no formal education (Adjusted OR 4.2, 95% CI 1.63, 11.27) and rural residents (AOR = 3.6, 95%CI: 1.4, 9.0). CONCLUSION: The predominant factors associated with home delivery services were lack of knowledge about obstetrics care, delay in starting Antenatal Care (ANC) follow up, having, Illiteracy and rural residence. Audience specific behavioral change communication should be designed to improve the demand for delivery services. Health professionals should take the opportunity to encourage mothers attend delivery services during ANC follow up. Improvements should be made in social conditions including literacy and major social mobilization endeavors.

Behavioral and emotional problems among children aged 6-14 years on highly active antiretroviral therapy in Addis Ababa: a cross-sectional study.

Children infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) are at particular risk for psychological disturbance. Little is known about the mental health status of children on highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). A hospital-based cross-sectional study of 318 children aged 6-14 on HAART in Addis Ababa was conducted. Behavioral and emotional problem was assessed using the child behavior check list (CBCL/6-18). Logistic regression analysis was done to select the best subset of predictor variables and determine their association with behavioral and emotional problems. Of the 318 caregivers of children aged 6-14 on HAART, 39.3% of the children had behavioral and emotional problems. Low family monthly income (AOR, 3.44, 95% CI, 1.89-6.25), older age (AOR, 2.27, 95% CI, 1.34-3.83), and parental loss (AOR, 1.89, 95% CI, 1.10-3.25) were found to be determinants of behavioral and emotional problems in the multivariate logistic regression. There is high prevalence of behavioral and emotional problems in children on HAART in Addis Ababa. More support is needed to children from families of low income and those who lost their parents. Further research should be carried out to enhance better understanding and appropriate response to behavioral and emotional problems.

Comparison of measures of adiposity in identifying cardiovascular disease risk among Ethiopian adults.

We sought to determine which measures of adiposity can predict cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk and to evaluate the extent to which overall and abdominal adiposity are associated with cardiometabolic risk factors among working adults in Ethiopia. This was a cross-sectional study of 1,853 individuals (1,125 men, 728 women) in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. The World Health Organization STEPwise approach was used to collect sociodemographic data, anthropometric measurements, and blood samples among study subjects. Fasting blood glucose (FBG) and lipid concentrations were measured using standard approaches. Spearman's rank correlation, receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves, and logistic regression were employed to determine the association and predictive ability (with respect to CVD risk factors) of four measures of adiposity: BMI, waist circumference (WC), waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), and waist-to-height ratio (WHtR). Overall, FBG is best associated with WHtR in men and WC in women. Systolic blood pressure (SBP) is most strongly associated with BMI in men, but with WC in women. Compared to those with low BMI and low WC, the risk of having CVD is the highest for those with high BMI and high WC and those with high WC and low BMI. Review of ROC curves indicated that WC is the best predictor of CVD risk among study subjects. Findings from our study underscore the feasibility and face validity of using simple measures of central and overall adiposity in identifying CVD risk in resource-poor settings.

Children who were vaccinated, breast fed and from low parity mothers live longer: a community based case-control study in Jimma, Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Improving child survival through various health interventions has been one of the main preoccupations of public health programs in developing nations. However, efforts to understand the child death determinants and determine whether the health interventions are really contributing to the reduction of mortality were not satisfactory. The purpose of this study is to identify determinants and causes of child mortality. METHODS: The study was conducted in the town of Jimma, Ethiopia, using a case control study design. Cases were identified through enumeration of all children and deaths prior to interview of the study subjects. Controls were under five children of the same age (+/-2 months) residing in the nearest household. Data was entered into EPI -info 6.4 software and analyzed using SPSS. RESULTS: Seventy four cases and 222 controls were included in the study. The study found that children who never breast fed [OR = 13.74, 95%CI (3.34, 56.42]] and children with mothers having more than five children [OR = 3.34, 95%CI (1.27, 8.76)] were more likely to die than their counterparts. Vaccination reduced the risk of death [OR=.26, 95%CI (0.10, 0.67) significantly. Pneumonia was the most common immediate cause of death [29.7% (95% CI (19.66, 41.48)] followed by acute diarrhea and malaria each contributing for 23% [95%CI (13.99, 34.21)] of deaths. CONCLUSION: Immunization, breastfeeding and low parity mothers were independently found to be protective from childhood death. Strengthening the child survival initiatives, namely universal child immunization, family planning and breast feeding - is strongly recommended.

Assessment of effective coverage of voluntary counseling and testing services in major health facilities of jimma zone, South ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Coverage assessment of Voluntary Counseling and Testing (VCT) service is useful to measures the health system effort or performance of health service delivery function and to influence decisions. The objective of this study was to assess effective coverage level for Voluntary Counseling and testing services in major health facilities of Jimma Zone. METHODS: Health institution based cross-sectional quantitative and qualitative study on health facilities that provide voluntary Counseling and testing services. RESULTS: The over all HIV/AIDS service package indicators availability coverage were 45.5% across the zone. The over all coverage for target population were 1.3%. The primary health care centers served only 18% of total registered Voluntary Counseling and Testing service users. Out of total positive serostatus clients, only 5% received condom. The coverage for post result counseling was 98.7% for all tested clients. Seventy-four (1.3%) of clients who were tested for HIV did not returned to know their results. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrated that effective coverage of Voluntary Counseling and Testing service was very low based on the providers view and records available. Thus we recommended that the services has to be strengthened, supervised and monitored to have a better achievement and improving the coverage status in addition to scaling up the services in the Zone.

Assessment of Effective Coverage of HIV Prevention of Pregnant Mother to Child Transimission Services in Jimma Zone, South West Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Coverage assessment of prevention of Pregnant Mother to Child Transmission (PMTCT) of HIV service is useful to measure the health system effort or performance of health service delivery function and to influence decisions. The objective of this study was to assess effective coverage level for prevention of Pregnant Mother to Child Transmission services in Jimma University Hospital. METHODS: Health institution based cross-sectional quantitative and qualitative study was conducted on prevention of Pregnant Mother to Child Transmission of HIV services. RESULTS: Out of total 1904 pregnant women who received at least one antenatal care service, 1472 (77.3%) were covered with PMTCT service in 2005 in Jimma University Hospital. The overall PMTCT service coverage for the target group in the Jimma Zone was 1.1 %. The prevalence of positive HIV blood test among pre counseled women was 101 (6.9%). Of all HIV positive pregnant women 62(61.3%) were taking Neverapine at home. CONCLUSION: From the data obtained, it was observed that PMTCT service coverage was low. Thus, we recommended that the services to be strengthened, for a better achievement and optimizing coverage.